Recent research has demonstrated that humans can "catch" fear from robots.
When individuals experience fear, they frequently hold onto a loved one’s hand, embrace a pet, or cling to someone in close proximity. Physical contact is generally reassuring, although this is not universally the case.
Breathing is intricately linked to emotions: slow, calm breathing indicates relaxation, whereas quickened breathing may indicate fear or panic. The researchers aimed to determine if individuals could perceive these variations in breathing through physical touch – and whether this perception would influence their own physiological response to fear.
Testing Fear With a ‘Breathing’ Robot
The team created a soft, plush robot equipped with a concealed motorized ribcage capable of imitating human respiration. Over 100 student volunteers embraced the robot while viewing a frightening movie segment. Depending on the assigned group, the robot either remained completely still without any "breathing"; inhaled and exhaled steadily at a relaxed rhythm, or breathed quickly, replicating hyperventilation. Concurrently, the researchers monitored the heart rates of the volunteers to assess their physiological arousal.
Fear is Contagious – Even From a Machine
The outcomes were remarkable. Participants who held the robot exhibiting rapid breathing demonstrated the most significant increases in heart rate, signifying elevated fear, in contrast to those who had the calm-breathing or stationary robots.
Notably, the participants also perceived the fast-breathing robot as looking "afraid," indicating that they interpreted the robot's physical cues similarly to how they would interpret those of a human or an animal.
This is the first evidence that fear-like breathing patterns can be accurately detected via touch and influence a person’s physiological state. It shows how powerful respiratory cues are in transmitting emotional responses.
Dr. Zachary Witkower, Lead Researcher, University of Amsterdam
Applications in Technology and Therapy
The research presents extensive implications. In human-robot interaction, it indicates that machines that mimic breathing could be employed to affect users' emotions, similar to how video game controllers utilize vibration to heighten excitement. In therapeutic settings, soothing robots or wearable technology may assist individuals in managing stress or anxiety by directing their physiological reactions.
Conversely, the results also highlight a warning: holding onto someone (or something) that is experiencing panic may lead to one’s own panic as well.
“People often cling to others when they’re scared, but if the other person is also afraid and hyperventilating, that touch can backfire by amplifying your own physiological response,” said Witkower.
Future Directions
The researchers emphasize that their investigation was conducted with university students in a controlled laboratory environment.
Future research will examine whether comparable effects are observed in children, elderly individuals, or those with anxiety disorders. The team aims to directly measure breathing in conjunction with heart rate to gain a deeper insight into the biological mechanisms involved.
A Window into Emotional Contagion
Overall, the results emphasize the way in which subtle physical cues – such as breathing – can convey emotions non-verbally.
“We often think of emotions as spreading through facial expressions or tone of voice. But our study shows that something as basic as the rhythm of another’s breathing, even when simulated by a robot, can affect how our own bodies respond to fear,” concluded Witkower.
Journal Reference:
Witkower, Z., et al. (2025) Human psychophysiology is influenced by physical touch with a “breathing” robot. Emotion. DOI: 10.1037/emo0001601. https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Femo0001601